A metamaterial with unusual elastic properties has been created

Characteristics of spring steels

Spring steels are characterized by increased yield strength (δB) and elasticity. This is the most important characteristic of metal - to withstand mechanical loads without changing its original shape. Those. a metal subjected to tension or, conversely, compression (elastic deformation), after removing the acting forces from it, must remain in its original shape (without residual deformation).

Types and scope of spring steel

Based on the presence of additional properties, spring steel is divided into alloy (stainless) and carbon. Alloy steel is based on carbon steel with a C content of 65-85% and is alloyed with 4 main elements, all or selectively, each of which brings its own characteristics:

Chromium - at a concentration of more than 13%, works to ensure the corrosion resistance of the metal. With a chromium concentration of about 30%, the product can work in aggressive environments: acidic (except sulfuric acid), alkaline, aqueous. Corrosion spring steel is always alloyed with a second accompanying element - tungsten and/or manganese. Operating temperature up to 250 °C.

Tungsten is a refractory substance. When its powder gets into the melt, it forms numerous crystallization centers, crushing the grain, which leads to increased plasticity without loss of strength. This brings its advantages: the quality of such a structure remains very high during heating and intense abrasion of the surface. During heat treatment, this element retains its fine-grained structure and eliminates softening of steel during heating (during operation) and dislocation. During hardening, it increases hardenability, as a result of which the structure becomes homogeneous to a greater depth, which in turn increases the service life of the product.

Manganese and silicon usually participate in mutual doping, and the ratio always increases in favor of manganese, up to about 1.5 times. That is, if the silicon content is 1%, then manganese is added in an amount of 1.1-1.5%.

Refractory silicon is a non-carbide-forming element. When it enters the melt, it is one of the first to take part in crystallization, pushing carbon carbides to the grain boundaries, which accordingly leads to strengthening of the metal.

Manganese can be called a structure stabilizer. By simultaneously distorting the metal lattice and strengthening it, manganese eliminates the excessive strength of silicon.

In some steel grades (when the product is operating in high-temperature conditions, at temperatures above 300 ºC), nickel is added to the steel. It eliminates the formation of chromium carbides along grain boundaries, which lead to matrix destruction.

Vanadium can also be an alloying element, its function is similar to that of tungsten.

Spring brands specify the element copper; its content should not exceed 0.15%. Since copper, being a low-melting substance, concentrates at the grain boundaries, reducing strength.

Spring brands include: 50HG, 3K-7, 65G, 65GA, 50HGFA, 50HFA, 51HFA, 50HSA, 55S2, 55S2A, 55S2GF, 55HGR, 60G, 60S2, 60S2A, 605, 70, 70G, 75, 80, 85, 60С2ХА , 60S2HFA, 65S2VA, 68A, 68GA, 70G2, 70S2XA, 70S3A, 70HGFA, SH, SL, SM, DM, DN, KT-2.

Grades of such steel are used for the manufacture of not only springs and leaf springs, although this is their main purpose, which characterizes the main property. They are used wherever there is a need to provide the product with elasticity, ductility and strength at the same time. All parts made from these grades are subject to tension and compression. Many of them experience loads that periodically replace each other, and with a huge cyclic frequency. This:

• bearing housings that experience compression and tension at each point with high frequency;
• friction discs experiencing dynamic loads and compression;
• thrust washers, most of the time they experience compression loads, but a sharp change in tension can also be added to them;
• brake bands, for which one of the main tasks is elasticity under repeated stretching. With this dynamic of increased aging and wear, stronger steel (with less elasticity) is susceptible to rapid aging and sudden failure.

The same applies to gears, flanges, washers, collets, etc.

Rating of the strongest elements in the world

There are a large number of well-known metals and alloys. Among the strongest are 10 elements.

Tantalum

A metal called tantalum, which was discovered in 1802, ranks third on our list. It was discovered by the Swedish chemist A. G. Ekeberg. For a long time it was believed that tantalum is identical to niobium. However, the German chemist Heinrich Rose managed to prove that these are two different elements. Scientist Werner Bolton from Germany was able to isolate pure tantalum in 1922. This is a very rare metal. The largest deposits of tantalum ore were discovered in Western Australia.

Due to its unique properties, tantalum is a highly sought-after metal. It finds a variety of uses:

• In medicine, tantalum is used in the production of wires and other components that can bind tissue and even act as a bone substitute;
• Alloys containing tantalum are resistant to aggressive environments and are therefore used in the aerospace and electronics industries;
• Tantalum is also used to produce energy in nuclear reactors;
• It is also widely used in the chemical industry.

Titanium

The last place in the top ten hardest metals is titanium. The first pure form of this element was obtained by the chemist J. J. Berzelius of Sweden in 1825. Titanium is a lightweight, silver-white titanium metal that is very hard and resistant to corrosion and mechanical stress. Titanium alloys are used in many branches of mechanical engineering, medicine and the chemical industry.

Iridium

Iridium is at the top of the list of the hardest metals. It was discovered at the beginning of the 19th century by the English chemist Smithson Tennant. Iridium has the following physical properties:

• It has a silvery-white color;
• Its melting point is 2466 oC;
• Its boiling point is 4,428 °C;
• Its resistivity is 5.3-10-8 Ohm-m.

Because iridium is the hardest metal on the planet, it is difficult to work with. However, it is still used in various industrial applications. For example, it is used to make small balls that are used in pens. Iridium is also used in the production of components for space rockets and some automotive parts.

Very little iridium occurs in nature. Findings of this metal are a kind of proof that meteorites fell where it was found. These cosmic bodies contain significant amounts of this metal. Scientists believe that our planet is also rich in iridium, but its deposits are closer to the Earth's core.

Tungsten

The hardest metal found in nature. This rare chemical element is also the most refractory of the metals (3422 °C).

It was first discovered as an acid (tungsten trioxide) in 1781 by Swedish chemist Carl Scheele. Further research led two Spanish scientists, Juan José and Fausto d'Elhujar, to the discovery of acid from the mineral tungramite, from which tungsten was then isolated using charcoal.

In addition to its widespread use in incandescent lamps, tungsten's ability to perform under extreme thermal conditions makes it one of the most attractive elements for the weapons industry. During World War II, metal played an important role in establishing economic and political relations between European countries.

Tungsten is also used to produce carbide and in the aerospace industry to produce rocket nozzles.

Beryllium

Now it’s better not to protect this metallic beauty. Because beryllium is very toxic and also carcinogenic and causes allergies. If you breathe air containing beryllium dust or beryllium fumes, you may develop beryllium, a disease that affects the lungs.

However, beryllium is not only harmful, but also useful. For example, add just 0.5% beryllium to steel, and you will get springs that will be elastic even when brought to red heat. They can withstand billions of load cycles.

Beryllium is used in the aerospace industry to create heat shields and guidance systems, and to create fire-resistant materials. Even the vacuum tube of the Large Hadron Collider is made of beryllium.

Uranus

This naturally occurring radioactive substance is very widespread in the earth's crust, but is concentrated in certain hard rocks.

One of the hardest metals in the world, it has two important commercial uses - nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors. Therefore, the end products of the uranium industry are bombs and radioactive waste.

Rhenium

Rhenium is a very rare and expensive metal that, although found naturally in its pure form, is usually added to molybdenite.

If Iron Man's suit were made of rhenium, it could withstand temperatures of 2000°C without losing strength. What will happen to Iron Man inside the suit after such a “fire show” is kept silent.

The metal is used in the petrochemical and chemical industries. This metal is used in the petrochemical industry, electronics and electrical engineering, and in aircraft and rocket engines.

Osmium

Silvery, bluish metal of light color.
It belongs to the platinum group and is considered one of the densest elements. It is characterized by hardness. Os is a brittle metal, but it is resistant to mechanical stress and acid-resistant. Scientists have recorded the presence of osmium in metal meteorites. Forming an ideal composition with other elements, it is widely used in medicine, electronics, chemistry and petrochemistry, rocket science, and is widely used in the production of pens.

Chromium

Chrome is a blue-white metal. It has high strength and hardness, as well as strong magnetic properties. It does not become brittle and is resistant to acids and alkalis.

It is used in the production of various alloys that are used in medical equipment. Cr is also used in the synthesis of artificial rubies, and chromium salts are used for wood preservation and leather tanning.

Ruthenium

The name of the second most powerful metal in the ancient language, ruthenium, means Russia. This metal has a silvery color, belongs to the platinum group and is found in the muscle tissue of all living creatures on earth.

It is a high-strength, hard, refractory metal, resistant to chemicals and capable of forming complex compounds. Ruthenium is used in the aerospace, medical and electronics industries, and as an additive to give gold its black color.

Graphene

Molecular lattice of graphene. The first item on our list is a material that is widely used in the aerospace and automotive industries. When safety comes first and launching rockets into space seems very dangerous, the use of graphene is simply necessary. It is 200 times stronger than steel. Graphene consists of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a triangular lattice.

Iron and steel

As a pure substance, iron is not as hard compared to other participants in the rating. However, due to the minimal cost of extracting it, it is often used in combination with other elements to produce steel.

Steel is a very hard alloy made from iron and other elements such as carbon. It is the most commonly used material in construction, mechanical engineering and other industries. And even if you have nothing to do with them, you still use steel every time you cut food with a knife (unless it's ceramic, of course).

Artificial metal

In 2015, Californian scientists created microplates. It is currently the lightest metal on Earth, consisting of 99.99% air. However, due to its special design, the element has high strength. It is an interweaving of tubes, each of which is the size of 0.001 human hair. The amazing properties of microfiber are just beginning to be fully exploited in industry.

Carbon fiber

Black carbon fiber composite. The characteristics of carbon fiber that make it an excellent choice for military vehicles, missiles, and sports car parts are its high stiffness and very low weight. Carbon fiber can also withstand very high temperatures and is highly resistant to a variety of abrasive chemicals. Essentially, carbon fiber is super-dense, aligned carbon atoms that are 5 to 10 micrometers in diameter.

Marking

Spring-spring steels can be grouped by position:

• unalloyed with a carbon content of 65-85% - inexpensive general purpose steel;
• manganese-silicon - the cheapest with high physical and chemical properties;
• chrome-manganese - stainless steel, works in aggressive environments at t -250 +250 C;
• additionally alloyed and/or tungsten, vanadium, boron - they are steels with an increased service life due to their homogeneous structure, an excellent strength-to-ductility ratio due to fine grains and can withstand high mechanical loads. They are used on such objects as railway transport.

The lightest non-ferrous metals

The most common way of classifying non-ferrous metals according to their physical and chemical properties is into seven groups, among which the so-called heavy and light non-ferrous metals are distinguished. This traditional definition is based on the density of the material.

The main list includes aluminum, magnesium, titanium, lithium, tin and beryllium. This group also includes cadmium, thallium, gallium, bismuth, indium and other elements.

The production of light alloys is extremely energy-intensive, so enterprises specializing in this area of ​​metallurgy are located near sources of cheap energy.

Production

Depending on further processing and the final type of part, steel is supplied in sheets, wire, hexagons, and squares. High performance qualities of the product are ensured by 2 components:

1. the structure of the metal, which is determined by the chemical composition and subsequent processing;
2. the presence of non-metallic inclusions in the structure, or rather the minimum quantity and size, which is eliminated at the stage of smelting and casting;
3. the shape of the part (spiral, arc) and its dimensions, which is determined by the calculation method.

When the spring is stretched, the inner and outer sides of the coils experience different degrees of stress: the outer ones are less susceptible to stretching, while the inner ones experience the greatest degree of deformation. The same applies to the ends of the spring: they serve as attachment points, which increases the load in these and adjacent places. Therefore, steel grades have been developed that are preferably used for compression or tension.

Thermo-mechanical treatment

Without exception, all spring steels are subjected to thermomechanical treatment. After it, strength and wear resistance can increase 2 times. The product is shaped in an annealed state, when the steel has the maximum possible softness, after which it is heated to 830-870 C and cooled in an oil or water environment (only for grade 60 CA). The resulting martensite is tempered at a temperature of 480 ºC.

All requirements and recommendations for this type are described in GOST 14959-79. Based on them, the company develops more detailed technological sheets that meet narrow parameters.

Source

Mechanical properties of wrought bronzes

E = 92…130 GPa.

Spring steel: description, characteristics, brand and reviews.

When choosing a knife, it is very important to consider the material from which it is made. After all, to perform various functions, the blade must not only be sharp, but also durable. In addition, you need to pay attention so that the blades do not become dull or bend under light load. These properties depend on the material from which the knives . Depending on the tasks that the knife must perform, be it a carving knife, a hunting knife or a tourist knife, the characteristics of the material differ.

Knives made from springs were undoubtedly the most popular among people who had anything to do with cars. They were actually made from the springs of old cars, since it was one of the most affordable materials. At the same time, knives were used both in the kitchen for cutting food and for household needs.

Nowadays, spring steel is not losing its position and is quite common in the production of knives.

The strongest metal alloy in the world

Platinum + gold - the world's hardest metal alloy
And straight to the heart of the scientific achievement - scientists from Sandia National Laboratory in the USA have developed a new metal alloy and called it the strongest alloy ever created by scientists in laboratories around the world. The newly developed material, made from a combination of platinum and gold, is estimated to be 100 times stronger than high-strength steel, making it the first metal alloy in the same class as diamond surfaces.

Characteristics of spring steels

Spring steels are characterized by increased yield strength (δB) and elasticity. This is the most important characteristic of metal - to withstand mechanical loads without changing its original shape. Those. a metal subjected to tension or, conversely, compression (elastic deformation), after removing the acting forces from it, must remain in its original shape (without residual deformation).

Types and scope of spring steel

Based on the presence of additional properties, spring steel is divided into alloy (stainless) and carbon. Alloy steel is based on carbon steel with a C content of 65-85% and is alloyed with 4 main elements, all or selectively, each of which brings its own characteristics:

Chromium - at a concentration of more than 13%, works to ensure the corrosion resistance of the metal. With a chromium concentration of about 30%, the product can work in aggressive environments: acidic (except sulfuric acid), alkaline, aqueous. Corrosion spring steel is always alloyed with a second accompanying element - tungsten and/or manganese. Operating temperature up to 250 °C.

Tungsten is a refractory substance. When its powder gets into the melt, it forms numerous crystallization centers, crushing the grain, which leads to increased plasticity without loss of strength. This brings its advantages: the quality of such a structure remains very high during heating and intense abrasion of the surface. During heat treatment, this element retains its fine-grained structure and eliminates softening of steel during heating (during operation) and dislocation. During hardening, it increases hardenability, as a result of which the structure becomes homogeneous to a greater depth, which in turn increases the service life of the product.

Manganese and silicon usually participate in mutual doping, and the ratio always increases in favor of manganese, up to about 1.5 times. That is, if the silicon content is 1%, then manganese is added in an amount of 1.1-1.5%.

Refractory silicon is a non-carbide-forming element. When it enters the melt, it is one of the first to take part in crystallization, pushing carbon carbides to the grain boundaries, which accordingly leads to strengthening of the metal.

Rating of the lightest metals on earth

In this chapter, we'll focus on the world's lightest metals: what properties they have, what they're used for, and why they're interesting.

Lithium

Lithium is in group 1 of the periodic table of elements. It has the lowest atomic mass of all metals - only 3, after hydrogen and helium. A simple substance, lithium, under normal conditions has a silvery-white color.

It is the lightest alkali metal, its density is 0.534 g/cm³. Thanks to this, it floats not only in water, but also in paraffin. For its storage, paraffin, gasoline, mineral oils or petroleum ether are usually used. Lithium is very soft and pliable and can be easily cut with a knife. To melt this metal, it must be heated to 180.54 °C. It will only boil at 1340°C.

In nature, there are only two stable isotopes of this metal: lithium-6 and lithium-7. In addition to them, there are 7 artificial isotopes and 2 nuclear isomers. Lithium is an intermediate product in the reaction of converting hydrogen into helium, thereby participating in the formation of stellar energy.

Which metal is the lightest on earth

Lithium is known as the lightest metal and is widely used in alloys.

Lithium is used in:

• in the production of chemical anodes for energy sources;
• in optical work and experiments;
• High performance lasers.

For example, lithium hydroxide is used to produce the electrolyte in alkaline batteries. Lithium silicate and aluminate are also used in the production of ceramics as a base. This ceramic hardens at room temperature.

This property of lithium is used

• in metallurgy;
• in military affairs (in the development of advanced technologies);
• in the production of thermonuclear energy.

Lithium is also widely used in industry, as some compounds of this metal help whiten fabrics.

Interestingly, the use of lithium has expanded into medicine and pharmaceuticals. In psychiatry, lithium compounds are used to stabilize the emotional state of patients.

Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium is a malleable metal with an atomic mass of 24.307 °u and a density of 1.7 g/cm^3, which ranks 12th in the periodic table. It was first obtained in its pure form in 1808. It is malleable and easy to press and cut.

It has a high melting point (650 °C) and corrosion resistance. When creating magnesium-based alloys, the mechanical properties of the metal are significantly improved, which significantly expands the range of applications of this type of material.

One of the most abundant elements on Earth, it is found in both the Earth's crust and seawater, usually in salts and minerals. Natural deposits of native magnesium are extremely rare; only a few deposits have been found in Russia, Eastern Siberia and Tajikistan. It is believed that in 2020 the United States will become the largest producer of magnesium in the world.

Its main application is the production of various alloys, both light and ultra-light, which can be used in aircraft and automobiles. Due to its flammable properties, it is also used in pyrotechnics and in the production of incendiary and illumination projectiles for the defense industry.

In the past, photography would not have been possible without magnesium powder with oxidizers - although magnesium flashes are used much less frequently than before, they are still in great demand. Magnesium is also important for the proper functioning of the body and metabolic processes, therefore magnesium-based preparations are used in medicine, cardiology, neurology and gastroenterological diseases.

Potassium

Potassium is the second most abundant element on the periodic table and ranks 19th in molecular weight. Like lithium, it is not found in lump form due to its increased activity, so potassium is extracted from minerals.

It is very soft, silver in color and produces a purple flame when burned. Potassium interacts with oxygen, acids and water. Explosions are not uncommon, so working with this dangerous metal requires extreme caution and the use of protective equipment. If potassium particles come into contact with the skin, they will cause severe chemical burns. It should be stored in airtight containers with added substances that prevent the penetration of oxygen. This could be silicone or mineral oil.

Potassium obtained from rocks in its pure form is used:

• For the production of electrodes;
• In lamps, photovoltaic cells.

Potassium is used in the form of alloys:

• In peroxide synthesis;
• In work to determine the age of rocks;
• As an indicator in biology and medicine;
• As a coolant in reactors.

Potassium is most in demand in medicine for the production of various types of alloys. A significant portion of drugs are synthesized on the basis of this metal. In addition, it is the basis of vitamin complexes, the purpose of which is to support the cardiovascular system and acid-base balance in the body.

Sodium

Sodium is an inorganic compound that is also an alkali and does not occur in nature in its pure form. It is found in minerals such as borax, thenardite, halite and others. Sodium is obtained in the laboratory by melting table salt. This industrial process also synthesizes chlorine.

Like lithium and potassium, this metal reacts violently with oxygen, acids, carbon dioxide and alcohols. It may spontaneously ignite when mixed with fluorine or chlorine. When water is added, a small explosion occurs and caustic soda is formed.

Externally, it is very similar to potassium. Its color is silver, although it quickly darkens in open air. Useful characteristics for industry are its excellent conductivity of electricity and heat.

Sodium has the greatest temperature difference between its boiling and melting points. Thus, the first process occurs at a temperature of +883 °C, and the second at +98 °C. This is the reason why sodium is used in nuclear reactors because it can withstand critical temperatures.

In the human body, Na is necessary for normal metabolism. The lack of this useful element leads to neuralgia and problems with the gastrointestinal tract. However, too much of it can lead to high blood pressure and swelling.

Aluminum

The hardest metal among light and non-ferrous metals is aluminum. This element is identified with the golden mean, when you need a material that is not only weightless, but also resistant to any impact.

The baby rattle was the first product made of aluminum.

It is one of the few chemical elements that is directly involved in the production of everything that forms the basis of a modern household. The world's most popular metal has won the title of most useful in the 20th century. However, in the 21st century, little has changed. Aluminum alloys (harder than pure metal) are used in construction, cutlery, tools, furniture and more.

Steel grades according to GOST 14959–79

These are steels with a high carbon content, but with low alloying. Gosstandart 14959 means alloyed alloy of the following grades:

• 3K-7 - used in the production of cold-drawn wire, from which non-hardening springs are made;
• 50ХГ – produce springs for cars and springs for railways. compositions;
• 50HGA - purpose in production as in the previous brand of spring steel;
• 50HGFA – produce special springs and spring parts for cars;
• 50ХСА – special-purpose springs and small parts for watch mechanisms;
• 50HFA - they produce parts with increased load, with the requirements of the highest stability and strength, which operate at high temperatures - up to 300 degrees.
• 51HFA – for spring wire;
• 55С2 - for the production of spring mechanisms and springs used in tractor construction, mechanical engineering, for railway rolling stock;
• 55С2А – produces auto springs, springs for trains;
• 55S2GF - for the production of very strong springs of a special type, autosprings;

• 55KhGR – produce spring strip steel, the thickness of which varies from 3 to 24 mm;
• 60G - for the production of round and smooth springs, rings and other spring-type products with high wear resistance and elasticity, for example, staples, bushings, tambourines for braking systems used in heavy engineering;

Interesting: torsion steel, grade 60C2 - high-load springs, friction discs, spring washers;

• 60С2А - produce the same products as from the previous type of steel;
• 60S2G – type of spring steel from which tractor and auto springs are produced;
• 60С2Н2А – produce responsible springs with a high load on the alloy;
• 60С2ХА – for the production of highly loaded spring products subject to constant load;
• 60S2HFA is a round steel with calibration elements, from which springs and spring plates are produced with high responsibility;
• 65 – produce parts with increased strength and elasticity, which are operated under high pressure, high static loads and strong vibration;
• 65G - produce parts that will work without shock loads;
• 65GA – hardened wire for springs;
• spring steel grade - 65S2VA, highly loaded leaf springs and springs;
• 68A – hardened wire for the production of spring devices with a caliber of 1.2-5.5 mm;
• 70 – parts for mechanical engineering that require increased wear resistance;
• 70G – for spring elements;
• 70G2 - produce digging knives and springs for various industries;
• 70С2ХА – spring elements for watch devices and large springs for special purposes;
• 70С3А – springs with high load;
• spring steel grade 70HGFA – wire for the production of spring elements with heat treatment;
• 75 – any spring and other parts used in mechanical engineering that are subject to heavy vibration loads;
• 80 – for producing flat parts;
• 85 – wear-resistant parts;
• SH, SL, SM, DN, DM – machine springs operating under static loads;
• KT-2 – for the production of cold-drawn wire, which is wound without heat treatment.

Mechanical properties of wrought brasses

E = 105…115 GPa.

Marking

Spring-spring steels can be grouped by position:

• unalloyed with a carbon content of 65-85% - inexpensive general purpose steel;
• manganese-silicon - the cheapest with high physical and chemical properties;
• chrome-manganese - stainless steel, works in aggressive environments at t -250 +250 C;
• additionally alloyed and/or tungsten, vanadium, boron - they are steels with an increased service life due to their homogeneous structure, an excellent strength-to-ductility ratio due to fine grains and can withstand high mechanical loads. They are used on such objects as railway transport.

Marking of spring steels is carried out as follows. Let's look at the example of 60S2HFA:

• 60 - percentage of carbon in tenths (carbon is not indicated in a letter value);
• C2 - letter designation of silicon with index 2, indicates a 2-fold increase in the standard content (1-1.5%);
• X - presence of chromium up to 0.9-1%;
• F - tungsten content up to 1%;
• A - the added letter index A at the end of the marking indicates the minimum content of harmful impurities of phosphorus and sulfur, no more than 0.015%.

How to increase the strength of metal

There are several ways to increase the strength of metals and alloys:

• Creation of alloys and metals with a defect-free structure. Work is underway to produce fibrous crystals (whiskers) that are several tens of times stronger than conventional metals.
• Obtaining an increase in volume and surface pressure artificially. Metal processing under pressure (forging, drawing, rolling, pressing) produces volumetric riveting, while rolling and shot blasting produces surface riveting.
• Formation of metal alloys using elements from the periodic table.
• Cleaning metal from impurities it contains. As a result, the mechanical properties of the metal are improved, and the propagation of cracks is significantly reduced.
• Elimination of metal surface roughness.

Application area

Alloy metals are used for critical parts with a large cross-section of turns. Spring stainless steel is used for the production of parts, elements of instrument making and mechanical engineering: washers; clamps; torsion bars; bending, torsion, extension, compression springs.

For the manufacture of springs, stainless steel grades AISI 304, AISI 321, etc. are used. The strings of musical instruments are also made from it. Order stainless steel products for the production of high-quality wire in the warehouse.

Other tests

A hammer can be used instead of a pendulum. In addition to the impact strength of steel and metal workpieces, it is necessary to check for stretching and torsion, and for fracture. All this gives a complete comprehensive picture of a particular material for construction.

Table with indicators

There is no need to carry out experiments every time, since most of them have already been done. It is enough just to use the proposed GOSTs. Here are the figures for the various most common brands:

Production

Depending on further processing and the final type of part, steel is supplied in sheets, wire, hexagons, and squares. High performance qualities of the product are ensured by 2 components:

1. the structure of the metal, which is determined by the chemical composition and subsequent processing;
2. the presence of non-metallic inclusions in the structure, or rather the minimum quantity and size, which is eliminated at the stage of smelting and casting;
3. the shape of the part (spiral, arc) and its dimensions, which is determined by the calculation method.

When the spring is stretched, the inner and outer sides of the coils experience different degrees of stress: the outer ones are less susceptible to stretching, while the inner ones experience the greatest degree of deformation. The same applies to the ends of the spring: they serve as attachment points, which increases the load in these and adjacent places. Therefore, steel grades have been developed that are preferably used for compression or tension.

Alloy and carbon materials

This type of material is used for the production of rigid (power) elastic elements. The reason for this particular application was that the high modulus of elasticity of this steel greatly limits the elastic deformation of the part that will be made from spring steel. It is also important to note that this type of product is high-tech and at the same time quite affordable. In addition to being used in automobile and tractor construction, this type of material is also widely used for the manufacture of power elements in various devices. Most often, parts made from this steel are called by one general name - general purpose spring steels.

In order to ensure the necessary performance of power elastic elements, it is necessary that spring steel have a high limit of not only elasticity, but also endurance, as well as relaxation resistance.

Interesting Facts

• Titanium alloys, whose specific gravity exceeds the specific gravity of aluminum by approximately 70%, are 4 times stronger than aluminum. Therefore, from the point of view of specific strength, alloys containing titanium are more viable for use in aircraft construction.
• Many aluminum alloys exceed the specific strength of steels containing carbon. Aluminum alloys are very ductile, resistant to corrosion and can be easily processed by pressure and cutting.
• Plastics have higher specific strength than metals. However, due to insufficient rigidity, mechanical strength, aging, increased fragility and low heat resistance, laminates, textolite and sandwich plastics have limited use, especially in large-sized structures.
• It was found that ferrous and non-ferrous metals and many of their alloys are inferior to fiberglass in terms of corrosion resistance and specific strength.

The mechanical properties of metals are an important factor influencing their practical use. When designing any structure, part or machine and choosing a material, it is necessary to take into account all the mechanical properties that it possesses.

Thermo-mechanical treatment

Without exception, all spring steels are subjected to thermomechanical treatment. After it, strength and wear resistance can increase 2 times. The product is shaped in an annealed state, when the steel has the maximum possible softness, after which it is heated to 830-870 C and cooled in an oil or water environment (only for grade 60 CA). The resulting martensite is tempered at a temperature of 480 ºC.

All requirements and recommendations for this type are described in GOST 14959-79. Based on them, the company develops more detailed technological sheets that meet narrow parameters.

Source